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식품 ≫ 기호성 ≫ 향신료
풍미 : Spice의 매력
Black Pepper
Black pepper, or Piper nigrum, is the fruit of a tropical vine that grows in a narrow climatological band—requiring lots of moisture, heat, and humidity. A native of the Indian region of the Western ghats of Kerala State, the fruits of the vine provide black, white, and green peppercorns.2 The red type is actually another species entirely (Schinus terebinthifolius: pink pepper of the Brazilian type, or Peruvian type Schinus molle) but part of the same botanical family, Anacardiaceae. Black pepper is made by blanching the green berry in hot water, which ruptures the cell walls, allowing enzymes to blacken the pericarp during aging. White is a more mature black peppercorn with the outer pericarp washed off, exposing the inner seed. Green pepper is produced by freeze-drying the unripe fruit.
Piperine is the (mostly) fat-soluble alkaloid found almost exclusively in the black pepper vine Piper nigrum. Piper longum (Long pepper) is a well-known Ayurvedic ingredient. It was used in early commerce and prized by the Romans and early Euro-cultures. Piper longum contains more piperine but lacks the wonderful aromatic terpenes of black pepper. Long-pepper was used in many early dishes for its fire and sweet tastes.3
Hot Peppers
Few other spices caused such a commotion, influenced history, and spread so quickly as the black pepper berry from the East Indies; marijuana and hot peppers (Capsicum annum) are the notable exceptions. When Columbus accidentally stumbled on the New Word in search for black pepper, he found himself immersed in unfamiliar foods such as vanilla, potatoes, maize, beans, tomatoes, pumpkins, squash, and, of course, chocolate. Columbus called the hot chili plant “pepper,” or pimiento, which is the Spanish word for black pepper.4 Unlike the potato or tomato, hot peppers spread rapidly around the globe and are probably more popular than black pepper; and a whole lot cheaper. This South American plant was a favorite of the American Indians, and many cuisines would be less flavorful without it—Indian, Szechwan, Mexican, Korean (think Kimchi), and Thai are just a few examples. The taxonomy of peppers is quite confusing, but the most important varieties are covered by Capsicum annuum, var. annum (cayenne, jalapeno, and bell); Capsicum frutescens (Tabasco), and Capsicum chinense (Habanero).4
Capsaicin and its five analogues are the active compounds in hot peppers. They stimulate oral mouth burn and pain via the vanilloid receptor (VR-1—a trigeminal orosensory nociceptive neuron). Capsaicin also appears to stimulate taste buds in general, including the sense of bitter taste, similar to the effects of menthol.5 For an excellent summary on capsaicin, see the link below from UC Berkeley.6 Here are a few of the interesting capsaicin facts:
a.• Capsaicin is mostly fat soluble; hence, the mouth burn cannot easily be neutralized by rinsing with water.
b.• Most of the capsaicin surrounds the seeds and the ribs (called the placenta) of the pepper. Scrape this out, and the heat drops by 90 percent. I like the flavor of jalapenos (rose-like) but can’t take the heat. Simply cut the pepper in half and spoon out the ribs and seeds.
c.• Capsaicin-sensitive neurons do not reside in the spinal column or brain.
d.• Capsaicin ingestion will deplete neurons of substance P, a neurotransmitter necessary for pain transmission. Thus, repeated tastings of a hot salsa will result in a lower perception of heat (pain) over time.
Spices Versus Herbs
There is much confusion as to what classifies as an herb or spice. In my classification, condiments and flavorings are based on whether they have a trigeminal or mouth burning property, a major reason to prefer a particular spice. Here are few examples with their major active flavor and orosensory compounds:
Spices (and Major Volatiles)
• Black, white, and green pepper (piperine)
• Hot peppers (capsaicin)
• Cinnamon (cinnamaldehyde and cinnamic acid)
• Peppermint, spearmint (menthol, menthone)
• Mustard (allylisothiocyanate)
• Ginger (gingerols)
• Turmeric (curcuminoids)
• Cloves (menthol, eugenol)
• Wasabi and horseradish (allylisothiocyanate)
• Allium species (propiin, isoalliin, methiin, (onion and garlic))
• Garlic (isoalliin, methiin, alliin)
• Cumin (cuminaldehyde)
• Rosemary and thyme, oregano, marjoram (ursolic acid, thymol, carvacrol, eugenol, camphor, 1,8-cineole)
• Nutmeg (essential oils, terpenes, and derivatives)
• Coriander seed: (d-linalool, camphor, a TRPV3 receptor stimulator)
• Sage (thujone [major active in the banned Absinthe drink!], 1,8 cineole, limonene, borneol)
Pure Herbs: Parsley, cardamom, basil, tarragon, dill, and fenugreek (it can be argued that some of these have spicy characteristics as well).
The spices with the highest orosensation are: black pepper, hot peppers, mustard, ginger, and horseradish. Each one of these spices contains active principles that cause the mouth burn and sometimes “nose burn.” And in each spice, the active principle possesses a unique and individual orosensory profile: heat level, time of onset, the part of the oral cavity affected, and sensitization properties. Black pepper burn tends to be on the front of the mouth, with a sharp onset and quick resolve. Hot peppers, on the other hand, affect more oral tissues (even internal ones), and the onset is more gradual and lingering. Hot peppers are unique in that the mouth burn becomes lessened with repeat exposure. Horseradish, mustard, and ginger tend to have very sharp and quick onsets of burn with a very quick or steep decline in sensation. Olfactory trigeminal activation is quite active in these three spices, and the pungent nose burn contributes to their arousing and pleasurable profiles.
In our food pleasure quest, spices can play a dominant, and sometimes unexplained, role in food preference. We know that trigeminal spices create orosensation (pain, temperature), and they activate vanilloid receptors (polymodal noiciceptors) that ultimately release pain-induced endorphins or similar feel-good neurotransmitters. Probably all the spices release reward neurotransmitters in one way or the other and, as a consequence, greatly influence cuisine design. Salsa now outsells ketchup as the condiment of choice, mainly due to the presence of capsaicin. Black pepper has such a unique aroma profile that it does not appear to interfere with any other savory food aromas. It is always an additive and is never smothering. This remarkable property is unique; few other spices or herbs are used so often without inducing sensory specific satiety. And as we will discuss, black pepper (piperine) is another strong activator of the vanilloid receptor. In fact, piperine binds to the receptor with more force than capsaicin––and with a much quicker onset of action.
Liking Spice
1. Spice usage helps preserve and maintain the sensory quality of a food, and reduce the levels of pathogenic bacteria and fungi.
Perhaps the most famous work on why we like spice is the paper by Sherman and Billing, who coined the term “Darwinian gastronomy.”1 An anthropologist teamed up with a neuroscientist, they reviewed the spices used in over 4,500 meat recipes. Here is a summary of some of the more interesting observations:
1.• Spice use is an evolutionary adaptation that adds color and flavor and makes the food taste better.
2.• Many of our favorite spices have anti-bacterial properties that helped prevent food-borne illness. Garlic, onions, oregano, allspice, and hot peppers are particularly good at pathogen reduction. In fact, at least half of all the spices Sherman and Billing tested had some anti-bacterial activity.
3.• The hotter the climate, the greater the use of spice and herbs because of the greater possibility of spoilage.
4.• Black pepper and lemon juice are a very popular flavoring combination, but they do not have high anti-bacterial activity. (Black pepper is actually a filthy spice with a high bacterial load.)
5.• Here is their listing of the most popular spices and flavorings in recipes in order: black pepper, onion, garlic, chilies, lemon and lime, parsley, ginger, and bay leaf.
The authors conclude that our taste buds and use of spice(s) co-evolved under the constant pressure to preserve food and/or to keep it from killing us. Their theory states that humans developed a preference for spices because spices helped them survive and feel good—and humans spread the word.
A major problem with the “they felt better” argument is that capsaicin is an aversive stimulus—not really the type of ingredient that causes instant liking. Even today, humans with lots of taste buds, called supertasters, tend not to use hot peppers at all. In infants and young children, hot peppers can actually burn out or destroy the vanilloid receptors entirely—certainly not something that engenders preference. This argument is an extension of a similar theory that spices were used in history to help cover up bad or spoiled food, which was a very common problem in refrigeration-compromised times. The problem I have with this theory is that, even bad-smelling or tasting food is not improved much by adding spice or herbs. The olfactory system is especially adept at detecting foul-smelling foods that might kill the ingestor. Adding hot pepper or thyme or black pepper will simply not cover it up. Test it yourself. Go into your garage, add ground black pepper and Tabasco to your cat’s canned food—and tell me if the mixture becomes more edible. You simply have spicy cat food. Oh, after the experiment please discard the food; cats are very sensitive to spicy food and will not appreciate the added seasoning!
Plants produce capsaicin to deter animal (especially rodent) ingestions; many animals feel the same pain (burn) as we do. Bird species, however, are free to eat peppers with impunity, since they lack the vanilloid receptor and have no pain response whatsoever. The pepper seeds, which are not destroyed during ingestion by birds, are then spread through the ecosystem and both species benefit. The capsaicin pain response also works to the advantage of the tarantula, whose venom activates the same vanilloid receptors creating a potent and lingering pain response.7
Although the Darwinian hypothesis by Sherman and Billing (spices make food safer) is interesting, evolutionarily speaking, I believe the use of spice is a more recent phenomenon. In European cuisine, the top five spices were in commerce only in the last thousand years or so and some of these less than five hundred years (chilies). The Bible, however, one of the earliest recorded works (over three thousand years old), mentions the Allium family—onions, garlic, and leeks—and a number of currently used spices—cinnamon, coriander, and mustard. In ancient Egypt, papyrus records indicate a rich tradition in herb and spice use as condiments and medicine. In Africa, the site of the human exodus (perhaps 50,000 to 75,000 years ago) Paleolithic excavations, have not found any of the current spices. However, there are records of very early food flavorings; for instance, the Masai tribe uses the bark of a local tree to flavor its combination of milk and blood. In the Americas, American Indians have used hot chilies for at least eight thousand years.4 Although the Sherman and Billing hypothesis may still be correct, the spice blends available many hundreds of thousands of years ago are unlikely to be the ones we use today.
In the cookivore theory of human evolution, wherein fire played a direct role in our higher evolution, the Sherman and Billing hypothesis fits in nicely, since it is our nature to flavor food and appreciate the complex aromas formed during cooking. Hence, it is very likely that humans used locally available aromatic roots, flowers, leaves, and shoots to flavor food, keep it safe, and, perhaps, improve digestion.8a-d
Healthful Benefits of Spices and Herbs
All the spices and herbs we use contain phytochemicals, and many of them are potent antioxidants. The use of spices reduces or ameliorates many common diseases by down-regulating harmful cytokine(s) and reducing overall inflammation, helping improve both mood and movement.9 We must wonder why the herbs and spices we use have so many health benefits. Did the spices and herbs first start as herbal medicines and then evolve into food flavorants? This reminds me of the famous maxim of Hippocrates, who said, “Let your medicine be your food.”
In a fascinating article, scientists Aggarwal and Shishodia report that many common spices reduce the amount of the nasty biological cytokines (nuclear transcription factor kappaB), which may be behind many diseases: cancer, atherosclerosis, myocardial infarction, diabetes, allergy, asthma, arthritis, Crohn’s disease, multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer’s disease, osteoporosis, psoriasis, septic shock, and AIDS!10,11 In their paper, they suggest that the “reasoning for seasoning” is the health benefits associated with all of the spices we use in cooking. For another in-depth look at the chemistry of spices and the effects on health, see the article by Carolyn Fisher, “Spices of Life.”12
There seems to be an interesting connection with spices, food pleasure, medicinal effects, food preservation, and even human embalming. Perhaps we are preserving ourselves with the ingestion of high antioxidant and antiseptic spices! Renowned German Egyptologist Georg Ebers, found papyrus records indicating extensive herb and spice usage as early as 1550 B.C., including anise, caraway, cinnamon, fennel, onions, garlic, thyme, fenugreek, and poppy seeds.13 Egyptians used spices in medicine, cooking, fumigation of stored grains, and, most notably, in preserving the dead.
O’Mahony et al. (2005) tested many spices and herbs and their killing abilities against several strains of the ulcer-causing H. Pylori.14 Here is a listing of the spices and herbs that had no effect: Bengal quince, nightshade, garlic, dill, black pepper, coriander, fenugreek, and black tea. The most effective were in this order: turmeric, cumin, ginger, chili, borage, black caraway, oregano, and liquorice. And the most potent spices that kept the bacteria from adhering to the stomach wall were turmeric, borage, and parsley.
2. The use of spices improves digestion and absorption of food.
Black pepper has a long history of use in Ayurvedic medicine—the 4,000-year-old traditional healing practice of India that is very similar to the TCM system of China. In fact, black pepper is used in over 25 percent of all the mixtures of herbs and spices that treat disease. Traditional healers believe that pepper improves digestion of nutrients and helps promote the actions of the other herbs in the Ayurvedic blends. As we will see, there is plenty of evidence that this is in fact quite true. In my nutraceutical work, I often add a small amount of Bioperine, a Piper longum extract from Sabinsa, to increase the absorption of important nutrients and phytochemicals. A few milligrams of Bioperine can actually increase such nutrients as beta carotene or CoQ10. I suspect that black pepper acts in a very similar way.
Since black pepper aids in the absorption of food, it is very possible this enhanced nutritional (caloric) load is sensed by the gut in a positive manner via hormones (or peptides) or direct vagal influence to the brain. This is speculation, of course, but the active principle piperine does increase intestinal water flow and subsequent digestion and absorption. Some scientists believe that enhanced nutritional absorption has a positive feedback loop that increases our preference for black pepper. The animal literature is rich in examples of enhanced preference to foods that enhance the absorption of nutrients. And humans will prefer foods if they sense satiety without even tasting the food. (This is known as sham feeding—the food bypasses the oral cavity). Thus, gastrointestinal sensing of increased satiety or fullness, by itself, will increase food hedonics and spice liking.15
3. Spices and herbs help prevent the oxidation of essential fatty acids.
The culinary herbs (rosemary, thyme, and oregano) are especially good at protecting the breakdown of essential fatty acids in food systems, such as meat, by inhibiting the oxidation of fatty acids, which create undesirable off-flavors and rancid notes. Thus, spicing suppresses off-flavors that reduce food pleasure. An example of an off-flavor is the phenomenon known as warmed-over flavors in meat products—a very undesirable feature, which is easily controlled by the use of antioxidant spice.
4. Herbs and Spices provide aroma variety to food, which enhances appeal and increases intake.
Variety (the spice of life) opposes the satiety effects of food—the phenomenon known as sensory specific satiety. And variations in the sensory properties of food—texture, taste, and aroma—are best at enhancing the variety effect.
5. Herbs and Spices are positively conditioned to food high in salt, fat, and sugar.
Herbs and spices are not intrinsically tasty in the sense that they are hedonically active like, say, sucrose. Rosemary aroma becomes preferred if it is paired with a food containing calories or macronutrients. This nutritional conditioning, if you are really hungry, only takes one pairing. Specific herbs that are constantly paired with certain foods (rosemary with chicken, tarragon with vinegar) form a strong memory engram (memory trace). Just smelling the aroma, especially if one is hungry, is enough to evoke the brain memory of roasted chicken.
6. Spices (not herbs) increase salivation and the pleasure of ingestion.
Salivation during food consumption is very important, since the major hedonic solutes must be dissolved in saliva or moisture in the mouth in order to be perceived. Amal Naj, in Peppers: A Story of Hot Pursuits, notes this in an astute discussion of saliva and food ingestion.16 He says that the pepper-induced salivation makes the food on the tongue more delicious—“go for it,” the brain says. The author said it’s his theory (and doesn’t want the experts to comment). Well, I will comment: his observations are concordant with my salivation theory of food ingestion. Mr. Naj’s insight is a major part of hot peppers’ allure—saliva stimulation and food ingestion share unique autonomic and hedonic properties.
7. Spices, especially capsaicin, activate the trigeminal (TG) receptor systems in the mouth more strongly than the receptors that carry taste.
Spices, then, create sensation; and this is paired with the act of eating food. The celebrated taste researcher Carl Pfaffman says that all food pleasure starts with sensation. And peppers, both black and hot, provide this in abundance. The oral cavity contains free nerve endings and receptors that carry the orosensations of heat, cold, and noxious stimuli. Capsaicin and piperine activate these neurons to release substance P and send a signal for pain; the mouth is saying, “I’m being burned.” This pain signal reaches the brain and releases endogenous opioids for pain relief—hence, the addictiveness of hot pepper and black pepper (piperine and capsaicin are close relatives chemically). Paul Rozin, a noted food psychologist and pepper expert, first proposes that the brain, upon pepper ingestion, thinks the mouth is being burned, and in a protective response releases the feel-good neurotransmitter—endorphin(s). As mentioned by Amal Naj in his book, Dr. Rozin suggests that endorphin release increases pleasure. He also commented that humans are unique at reversing the natural aversion to these spices; he has tried to get rats (little success) and chimpanzees (a bit more) to like chilies!17, 18 Although hot peppers spread quickly around the world after their discovery, not all humans prefer them. Many Northern European and classic French cuisine ignore hot peppers entirely, unless they dabble in Asian fusion techniques.
Amal Naj also suggests that hot peppers heighten the mouth sensitivity in a generalized way. Amal suggests that other spices do this as well (garlic, coriander, ginger). Arousal or “attention to stimuli,” is a very important component of learning and memory. So what happens when you put burning, stinging, tingling, and sweat-producing materials in your mouth? You get attention to food stimuli, as in—what’s in my mouth is going to kill me. The brain then focuses on the oral sensations of tastes, textures, and aromas in an effort to memorize and/or reject the oral invader. But there is more insight by Amal Naj. Capsaicin not only actives the vanilloid receptor (suggested by Naj before the discovery of this receptor; he said hot peppers should be a taste of its own!), it may activate salty and sweet receptors as well.19 Hot peppers, then, activate endorphins, increase food arousal, and excite the pleasurable sweet and salty sensations.
Capsaicin is mostly fat soluble (and odorless and colorless), so one must use a natural fat emulsifier, like casein in milk, to dislodge or flush it out of the mouth. Yogurt will also work, as will a little alcohol from wine or beer. A cold beer helps remove capsaicin and depresses the pain sensation; conversely, room temperature red wine with a much higher alcohol content, enhances the pain response. Capsaicin is also unique in that it causes its own desensitization by depleting substance P in the neuron. Hence, the more you eat, the less you feel the pain. Perhaps this explains why hot-pepper eaters tend to escalate their pepper liking—they get used to the burn.
Most aromas, in order to be perceived, are under three hundred molecular weight. Since the capsaicin’s molecule weight is 305, capsaicin will only volatilize upon heating, and you risk the inhalation of the pepper vapors. One summer, I grew habaneros just for the fun of it. During the preparation of a chili dish, I left a few halved habaneros in the sink. A few minutes later a friend decided to wash his hands, and turned the hot water on in the sink. The capsaicin volatilized and we had to evacuate the kitchen! Our sensitivity to capsaicin is quite strong; we can detect just a few molecules placed on the tongue. This sensitivity is used to good effect in the defensive police pepper sprays and in the garden, where capsaicin emulsions sprayed on plants will keep bugs off for almost a month (Bonide brand is a good one).
8. Spices may have anti-depressant activity.
Spices, we have seen, activate noiciceptors (pain receptors) in the mouth; but they can be absorbed and act centrally, with interesting, pharmacological effects. Lee et al. (2005) suggests that piperine inhibits MAO activity and may be an anti-depressant.20 MAO A & B are enzymes responsible for breaking down certain neurotransmitters—dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine—involved with pleasure, movement, depression, and generalized mood. By inhibiting these break-down enzymes, the levels of these neurotransmitters increase in the brain (and periphery). Capsaicin, the active principle in hot pepper, releases anandamide, a possible feel-good neurotransmitter that attaches to cannabinoid (CB-1 & 2) receptors, supposedly the reason we like chocolate.21 Hence, hot and black pepper ingestion may activate the pain-sensing trigeminal neurons in the mouth, releasing both the feel-good endorphins and the “blissful” anandamides in the brain.
Piperine has a number of additional effects in the body:
•a. Piperine increases pancreatic production of digestive enzymes (an excellent effect when combined with a meal).22
•b. Piperine may increase or prolong the action of Viagra by inhibiting the liver and intestinal CYP3A4 enzyme that degrades sildenafil. Grapefruit juice also is a potent inhibitor of intestinal CYP34A, the (first-pass) drug metabolism system for many drugs, including estrogens, diazepam, and erythromycin. Although I don’t know of any direct studies on this, one should be careful about preparing steak au poivre after ingesting a sildenafil.22
•c. Piperine may have anti-mutagenic activity and may prevent cancer via antioxidative and detoxifying enzyme induction.23
d. Piperine is very potent at activating the TRPV1 human vanilloid receptor—actually stronger than capsaicin—creating greater desensitization of the receptor itself. This means that piperine may have pain-killing effects superior to capsaicin, which is used in many creams and patches for pain relief.24
e. Piperine is a potent inhibitor of inflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-alpha, IL-1beta, IL-6, and GM-CSF.25 A strong dose of black pepper may reduce aches and pains in such conditions as osteoarthritis.
f. Piperine may enhance the absorption of the healthy catechins in tea.26 Tea catechins or polyphenols have many health benefits, such as lowering cholesterol, boosting the immune system, and lowering cancer risk. The popular hot beverage “chai,” is Hindi for tea, and contains black tea and milk as the base with a variable combination of the following spices: ginger, cinnamon, cardamom, star anise, cloves, nutmeg, and black pepper. Black pepper is an ingredient in many Ayurvedic formulas and the practitioners must have sensed it helped with the absorption of the herbal actives. Chai, the Ayurvedic health beverage, is not easily made at home, but is as close as the nearest gourmet coffee house.
g. Piperine may help reduce the oxidative stress and elevated serum triglyceride levels induced by high-fat diets (junk food).27 The authors gave rats a nasty diet of coconut oil, cholesterol, and bile salts and then, in the other two groups, the same diets but with added black pepper and piperine. The black pepper and piperine supplemented rats had (amazingly) near normal antioxidant status—despite the Super Size Me diet.
h. Spices may activate the bitter receptor. Green and Hayes (2004) report that about 50 percent of people find the big three spices to have bitter overtones.19 Perhaps this explains why some individuals do not like highly spiced food. Supertasters, about 1/4 of the population, simply resist ingesting hot or spicy food.
i. The three hot spices (and their cousins) have a similar molecular structure—an aromatic ring with two ortho oxygens. Vanilla has the same ortho oxygen configuration as well. Vanilla in higher levels actually has a throat burn or tickle that feels like getting something stuck in your throat!
Flavor companies are actively investigating the aroma chemicals or spices that activate these cold or hot receptors. The reason is now obvious: the trigeminal orosensory system in the mouth has powerful effects on pleasure generation and food ingestion:
•a. Spices may activate a new pain receptor. Activation of the TREK-1 (potassium gated, g-coupled receptor) increases sensitivity to heat and osmolality. This new receptor is co-localized with TRPV1 and may be another polymodal pain receptor activated by hot spices.28
•b. Spicy food may promote weight loss. Studies indicate that combining tyrosine, capsaicin, catechins, and caffeine helps reduce fat mass (a bit) when added to a hypocaloric diet.29
•c. Bay leaves contain 1,8-cineole, a terpene with anti-inflammatory activity.30 Bay is used extensively in French (bouquet garni) and Middle Eastern cuisine (some curries). Thyme also contains this same terpene.
•d. The French frequently use herbs de Provence in their cooking. In a study by Hoaxing et al. (2006),31 the herbs oregano, savory, clove, and thyme (containing carvacrol, eugenol, and thymol) activated the heat-sensing TRPV3 receptor in the skin, nose, and mouth. These spices add more sensation than just aroma when they are used in cooking. In addition, oregano (carvacrol) desensitizes the TRPA1 receptor, which causes a sharp stinging or burning sensation at high levels. (I have a pot of oregano growing on the patio, and the variety is called “spicy-type” oregano. Now I know why!) Eugenol, in the bay leaf, is a very powerful binder to the vanilloid receptor due to the fat-soluble nature of the molecule. Just one leaf is enough to add a subtle, pungent character to a pot of stew or stock. Thomas Keller, in his bistro book Bouchon, frequently combines bay leaf with thyme. This spice combination, then, creates additional oral sensation, providing both heightened interest and pleasure to the dishes.
Spices and Calories
We have seen that spices are very active orally—they can activate heat, cold, pain, tactile, and basic taste receptors.32 And when we learn that eating hot peppers will do no harm, we are free to self-indulge in this endorphin pain response. The degree of spice liking, however, is largely based on your supertaster status. People who are supertasters (have more taste buds) use less spicing in general. But the main reason we use spices is found in the food pleasure equation: food pleasure equals sensation plus calories. To keep the pleasure levels equal, when calories are reduced in a food, we must increase the sensation—the snap, crackle, pop, spiciness, and the hedonic tastants of salt, sugar, and MSG.
When I was in India, on business, a professor told me why she thought Indians liked heavily spiced food. She said the average Indian lacks fat in the diet because it is very expensive. She postulated that a lack of calories induced a heightened spice liking to increase the overall pleasure of eating. The more I study this phenomenon, the more I believe in the professor’s hypothesis. Scandinavian cooking, rich in meat, milk fat, and cheese, uses the least amount of spice. Those cuisines which are calorically compromised tend to be the hottest and most elaborately spiced. Indian cuisine, largely vegetarian, is justifiably famous for complex orosensory spice blends. The most famous is curry (typically a mixture of black pepper, fenugreek, mustard seed, coriander, cayenne, ginger, cinnamon, turmeric, and cloves). This spice mixture activates many receptor systems––hot, cold, pain, and probably tactile (touch) as well.
Foods That Burn Twice
A professor friend used to say that good Mexican food “burns twice.” And anyone who has eaten very hot food will notice that capsaicin burns both the oral and, well, you know—the other end. There is a huge difference between the two areas in response to capsaicin. Orally, we can handle the fire (taste buds and the oral cavity are resistant to assault), and in time we adapt to the burn (substance P depletion) and increase our intake of fiery foods. The intestinal tract, however, has few pain receptors until the end, where chemoreceptor innervations are quite massive. Capsaicin is only absorbed in small amounts; the bulk of this fat-soluble substance is excreted in the stool. And that’s where the problem lies. These distal pain receptors are very similar to those in the mouth, but they don’t have the adaptation property that the oral cavity has. Hence, even hardened salsa warriors will feel the pain the next day, usually accompanied by diarrhea, since capsaicin accelerates and increases the secretion of water in the intestine. Why do we keep doing this to ourselves? (I am a repeat offender; my wife laughs at my folly.) The answer is that the pain in the butt is not associated with the pain in the mouth, because of a twenty-four-hour time lag before the second burning. People, therefore, do not form a conditioned response to the pain sensation and we are free to repeat the oral and internal endorphin response.
Bourdain writes about this phenomenon in his entertaining collection of essays in the book The Nasty Bits, which I highly recommend. After eating an especially hot Szechuan meal (with hot chilies and Szechuan peppercorns) his host guaranteed “diarrhea tomorrow.” Bourdain suggested that his delicate Western metabolism was making him more susceptible to the adverse effects of the spice combination. The host replied that everyone pays the price the next day! But this never dampens the gustatory enthusiasm; heavily spiced food is simply addicting.
The Szechuan (or Sichuan) peppercorns come from two sources, the Japanese pepper tree (Zanthoxylum piperitum DC.) and the more common Sichuan pepper (Zanthoxylum schinifolium, Siebold & Zucc.), a type of thorny ash tree (evergreen) native to central China. The active numbing compounds are collectively called (alkyamides or sanshools) and are partly responsible for the prolonged lavatory sessions upon ingestion. The alkyamides bind not only to the vanilloid receptor, but to the heat and cooling receptors as well; and, very specifically, to “tactile” or “touch” receptors in the mouth and throat.33 The highly water soluble compounds actually numb oral tissues and provide the “pleasurable” sensation. The only other food with numbing and tingling properties is fugu, prepared from Tiger Blowfish and considered the greatest of all delicacies in Japan. The highly toxic compound (tetrodotoxin) shuts down the sodium channels present in the nervous system—causing progressive muscle paralysis. The gourmand, fully conscious, dies when the neurotoxin reaches the lungs and inhibits breathing. There is no antidote—I’ll stick to sushi.
Cooks wishing to experiment with Sichuan peppers will not easily find this spice. No American supermarkets stock it, and I haven’t been able to find an Asian store that carries it either. Sichuan pepper is a traditional member of the classic seasoning blend, Chinese five-spice, a reference to the traditional belief that this unique combination of spices excites all the five senses in the mouth: sour, bitter, sweet, salty, and mouth-burn. Typical spices used in the formulations include: cinnamon, ginger, cloves, star anise, fennel, and Sichuan peppercorns. Although five-spice mixtures are common in grocery stores, most contain black or white pepper as a substitute for Sichuan pepper; so be wary, you want the unique mouthfeel of real Sichuan pepper. Just a small amount of five-spice can liven up the most bland foods and makes a great general purpose seasoning for meat dishes.34 I frequently mix five-spice with Emeril’s Original Essence, a fifty-fifty blend, as a seasoning for coating roast chicken. Authentic Sichuan peppercorns may be found at igourmet.com and penzeys.com.
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